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Predynastic Period 5464 - 3414 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:54:00.000-07:00

Predynastic Period
(5464 - 3414 B.C.E.)
The Predynastic Period can be best characterized by the evolutionary nature of the hunter-gatherers departing from the Neolithic to form a variant of an agricultural/farming society. This period also shows great technological, religious, funerary and social life advances toward a village grouping society on the verge of a city-state organization.
The beginning of the urban city, writing, trading with other cultures, ornamental pottery and a strong belief in the afterlife were formed and strengthened during this period. Food was also plentiful. Animals such as dogs, goats, sheep, cattle, geese and pigs had been domesticated. As time went by,, the main constituents of civilization of unified Egypt were gradually introduced during the this period.

Archaic Period3414 - 3100 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:53:00.000-07:00

Archaic Period
(3414 - 3100 B.C.E.)
The Archaic Period in Egyptian history marked the consolidation of the Egyptian state. It was ensured by the development of a centralized administration system and a court-centered Great Tradition based upon the united Egypt. After this, even in times of political crisis, Egypt was dominated by the Egyptian elite. The royal court set the cultural standards for the entire country, making the king the fountainhead not only of power and preferment, but also as a member of the elite way of life.

Old Kingdom3100 - 2181 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:52:00.000-07:00

Old Kingdom
(3100 - 2181 B.C.E.)
The Old Kingdom was the period in which most of Egypt's pyramids were built; however, it was during the 3rd Dynasty when many of the first, relatively crude, pyramids were built. During the 4th Dynasty, all of the Great Pyramids at Giza were constructed. During this period, the exploitation of the Sinai Peninsula, which was rich in turquoise and copper, was taking place. Trade outside the Nile Valley began during the reign of Sahure. During the reign of Pepi I the Egyptian army was organized by General Weni and a warrior caste developed. The Old Kingdom came to an end with the death of Pepi II. Following his death, the central government collapsed. This brought about a period of turmoil known as the 1st Intermediate Period.

Intermediate Period I2181 - 2125 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:49:00.000-07:00

Intermediate Period I
(2181 - 2125 B.C.E.)
The Intermediate Period I begins with the death of Pepi II. Scientists are not completely positive but somewhere either directly after or shortly before he died, a climatic change occurred which caused crops to fail and led to hunger across Egypt. As a result, there was famine, poverty, social upheaval and anarchy. Local governors tried to maintain control by placing the needs of their people above that of the neighbors, but it was difficult to say how widespread the famine and social upheaval was. It is certain that it engulfed Memphis which was the capital at that time.
After more than 20 years there appears to have been a line of kings which made up the 9th and 10th Dynasties. These kings resided at Herakleopolis and managed to stabilize their power over their neighboring regions and then they took control of Delta.
Their attempt to take control of Upper Egypt failed when they encountered resistance from the princes of Upper Egypt somewhere around Thebes. Thebes became "the door of the South." Later on Thebes would start a rebellion against Herakleopolis and managed to set-up their own independent kingdom. This is likely to have extended down to the first cataract and up to just south of Abydos. Later, there was another war between Herakleopolis and Thebes which was over the control of Egypt. Thebes, which was led by Nebhetepre Mentuhotep I, conquered Herakleopolis after a period of a few years. This marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt.

Middle Kingdom2125 - 1650 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:48:00.000-07:00

Middle Kingdom
(2125 - 1650 B.C.E.)
The Middle Kingdom is considered to have started with Nebhepetre Mentuhotep I uniting all of Egypt. He ruled for 51 years and his reign brought much stability to Egypt. His conquest of much of Egypt meant draining the nonarchs of their armies and subsequently their power. This put Nebhepetre Mentuhotep I in such a position as king that had not been realized since Phiops II. His son ruled for some time but eventually Amenemhet I overthrew his grandson, Mentuhotep IV, marking the end of the 11th Dynasty. This apparently required assistance from the nomarchs. Some nomarchs would continue to hold king-like powers until Senusret III stripped them of it.
During this time trade picked up dramatically and many resources which before had been unused were now being exploited. The Faiyum was exploited for the cultivation of crops, mines which produced gold and quarries were dug for building projects. During the entire Middle Kingdom many building projects were conducted. Mentuhotep I built his mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahari. The 12th Dynasty re-established the pyramid building and every Pharaoh of that dynasty was buried in their own pyramid.
Many other structures were also built during this time. This included the building of fortresses. Amenemhet I built the series of fortresses that came to be known as the Wall of the Princes. Senusret I, built a series of 13 fortresses from the Second Cataract up along the west coast of the Nile to protect against invaders.
The Middle Kingdom was a generally peaceful time. However, expeditions were sent during some phases of the Middle Kingdom to push the borders of Egypt outward. Only during Senusret III do we see numerous campaigns of this type. Senusret III also regained the power that was enjoyed by Mentuhotep I by instituting several internal reforms.
The Middle Kingdom eventually came to a close, however. There appears to have been a smooth transition between the 12th and 13th Dynasties. But for some reason the 13th lost more and more control as the later kings of that dynasty came to power. The close of the Middle Kingdom is sketchy. It is believed to have occurred when the 14th Dynasty took control of the western Delta and the 15th Dynasty took control of the eastern Delta. So began the 2nd Intermediate Period.

Intermediate Period II 1650 - 1550 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:46:00.000-07:00

Intermediate Period II
(1650 - 1550 B.C.E.)

This period begins with the waning power of the Memphite kings during the 13th Dynasty.

Asiatic immigrants who had been settling in Egypt for some time began to rise to power in the eastern Delta and began pacifying their neighboring regions. These Asiatics came to be known as the Hyksos. The regions either allied themselves to the Hyksos or were besieged by them.
The Hyksos made their way down the Nile and took Memphis about 1600 BCE(BC) which marked the end of the 13th Dynasty. It is unclear how much of Egypt the Hyksos controlled, but some experts believe they may have controlled the entire country for awhile.
The Hyksos revitalized the dying culture of the Egyptians, while keeping major institutions alive. Trade with the Near East brought new ideas and technologies to the Egyptian people. The art of bronze working made for better weapons for foot soldiers. The chariot improved the effectiveness of the army while scale armor protected soldiers in battle. Other weapons like the composite bow and new shapes of scimitar were introduced.
Improvements to society included a new potter's wheel, the vertical loom and new musical instruments. Some of the musical instruments included the lyre, the long-necked lute, the oboe and the tambourine. Besides these things, the Hyksos introduced new vegetable and fruit crops and humped-backed cattle called zebu.
Sometime around 1570 BCE(BC), the Hyksos King, Apophis, sent the ruler of Thebes, Seqenenre, a message. The message was, in essence, an insult. This set off a war between the Thebans and Hyksos which would end some years later when Kamose, the Theban king, cornered the Hyksos in Avaris. The Thebans then drove the Hyksos from Egypt and chased them into Palestine. This, too, marked the beginning of the New Kingdom and the 18th Dynasty as well.

New Kingdom1550 - 1069 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:39:00.000-07:00

New Kingdom
(1550 - 1069 B.C.E.)
The 2nd Intermediate Period came to a close with the defeat of the Hyksos by Ahmose I. After securing Egypt's northern borders, Ahmose I instituted internal changes. He created a the position of Viceroy for Kush, Nubia. This Viceroy answered to no one but the Pharaoh.
The wars of this period were fought with the powerful Near East empires, such as the Hittites, the Mitanni and the Assyrians, all of which were neighbors of Egypt. The Mitanni occupied an area around Nahrina. The Assyrians were on the eastern border and the Hittites occupied the land to the west.
Also during this time period, Ramesses III fought against a coalition of wandering tribes called the Sea Peoples. This saw the borders of Egypt expand in the north as far as the Euphrates River and down to the 4th cataract in the south. These borders would then retract until Egypt was nothing more than the Nile Valley extending down to the 2nd cataract.
It was Tuthmosis I who extended the borders of Egypt to their farthest extent. He and his grandson, Tuthmosis III, then fought many campaigns to hold onto these borders. Later in the 18th Dynasty, a general of the army was made Pharaoh in hope that he would be able to save Egypt from being destroyed. His success brought about the 19th Dynasty. The 20th Dynasty saw some of the last great Pharaohs of Egypt. Ramesses II is known to have signed a mutual defense treaty with the Hittites, a powerful neighbor. This was a new landmark in diplomacy.
A notable figure of the New Kingdom was the female Pharaoh, Hatshepsut. She extensively built new temples and monuments throughout Egypt. They exist mostly in the north and south, however. Her period of rule is known for its peace and prosperity.
Another interesting individual was Akhenaten. His internal reforms caused ill feelings against those in powerful positions and allowed Egypt's foreign interests to be lost. Their ally during his reign, the Mitanni, were destroyed and their northern holdings captured by foreign powers. He was finally removed from the throne by those whom he had offended.
Trade during this period brought new items and the exploitation of Kush made Egypt rich. From Kush came things like gold, ivory, ebony, cattle, gums, resins and semi-precious stones.
The New Kingdom came to an end during the reign of Ramesses XI. Late in his reign civil war broke out and the viceroy of Kush was called upon to suppress Thebes. The viceroy was successful until the king's general Herihor drove the viceroy out of Thebes. The viceroy later came to rule Kush as an independent kingdom and it was forever lost to Egypt.

Late Period I1069 - 517 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:38:00.000-07:00

Late Period I
(1069 - 517 B.C.E.)
During this period, there were Ethiopian Kings from Napata struggling with the Assyrians for control of Egypt. In this same period, three groups, the Libyans, Kushites and some Egyptian families, ascended to the throne. There are very few material remains that have been found for this period.
During the Libyan Dynasties, a school of palace artists flourished. They showed considerable skill in making bronze, silver and gold, even though little has survived.
The Kushite kings, with their conservative tastes for classical standards, are usually thought to be the instigators of the antiquarian study of the past which is a feature of the following dynasties. There is a large amount of effort to recapture Egypt's splendor. Much of the sculptures and art styles of this time appear to imitate the Old and Middle Kingdoms, in fact it is so well done it has fooled experts.

Persian Period I517 - 425 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:37:00.000-07:00

Persian Period I
(517 - 425 B.C.E.)
Cambyses, son of Cyrus and Cassadane, had once remarked to his mother that when he became a man, he would turn all of Egypt upside down. This comment came into play after there had been some disturbances between the Egyptians and Persians. During one battle, a Persian ambassador sailed up the Nile in a Mitylenean boat, and proposed terms of surrender to the Egyptian rebels in Memphis, Egypt. When the Egyptians saw the boat coming, they attacked it and smashed it to pieces as well as killing all of the crew members. The Persian army moved up to Memphis and forced the rebels to surrender prompting several other groups to offer gifts of tribute to Cambyses. Ten days later, Cambyses protested to the royal judges for justice. It was decided that ten Egyptians would die for every Persian who had been killed on the boat. In the end two thousand Egyptians had been executed. Many years after this had occurred, Egypt, like Babylon and Assyria, became a province of the Persian Empire.
As soon as Cambyses became master of Egypt, he planned expeditions against the Carthaginians, the dwellers in the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, and the Ethiopians. He ended up leaving the Carthaginians in peace due to lack of support, but did attempt to bring down the dwellers and the Ethiopians. His armies were unprepared for the harsh conditions and misguided in terms of directions. Cambyses, out of frustration and hopelessness, decided to abandon his plan of attack. During his reign, Cambyses had destroyed several temples at Memphis and became a tyrant in the eyes of his people and court members. Some even thought he was crazy due to the outlandish things he would do such as having twelve Persian nobles buried in the ground up to their neck for reason at all. He had many killed because of comments that upset or offended him. It is said that Cambyses reigned for seven years and five months. In an attempt to rush off on one of his horses, Cambyses was wounded in the thigh when a portion of the scabbard of his sword fell off. He soon died from the effects of the wound, which caused the limb to mortify and affect the bone.
Darius I, is said to have become king in a very unusual way. He was one of seven men who were to find and kill an imposter named Smerdis. Upon the death and beheading of Smerdis and several others who got in the way of the seven men, a massacre broke out when the people saw the heads of the traitors. The remaining men decided that after they were mounted on their horse, whichever horse neighed first at sunrise should have the kingdom. Oebares, groom of Darius, managed to get Darius’ horse to neigh when everyone was mounted at sunrise one day making Darius ruler of the New Kingdom.
When he arrived in Egypt about BC 517, he adopted the style of the old Egyptian kings and chose for himself the name Ra-SETTU king of the South and North. He placed his name Darius into hieroglyphic characters within a cartouche as "son of the Sun". Darius has founded a college for the education of the priests. His goal was to erase the negative impressions the Egyptians had of the Persians, including that of Cambyses. His greatest work was the completion of the digging of the canal to join the Nile and Red Sea, which had begun by Necho II. He became acquainted with Egyptian theology and the writings in books. At one point he gained the title of god, which no other Persian king had done. Darius repaired architectural works, but his greatest attempt was the building of the temple in Oasis Al-Kharga in honor of the god Amen. Darius had married at least 5 women and had 12 children, including Xerxes, his successor. He ruled for thirty-six years.
Xerxes the Great, succeeded Darius I about BC 486 or 485. His first important work was the suppression of the Egyptian revolt his father was preparing to crush. He had his brother Akhaemenes govern over the country, but more or less reduced it to a much worse state than it was before Darius. Xerxes didn’t do anything for the Egyptian temples. Some say that he may have even robbed them completely. There aren't many monuments attributed to Xerxes either. He was said to be a tall, handsome man yet very cruel and tyrannical. Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus and Spamitres about BC 465. He ruled for twenty years and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes.
Artaxerxes, became king of all of Persia after many struggles. Upon Xerxes death, Artaxerxes was convinced to have his brother Darius killed for their fathers’ murder by a man named Artabanus. His chief goal was to make one of his own sons king of Persia. Artaxerses name isn’t found in Egypt. He adopted the title "Pharaoh the Great", but didn’t adopt a throne name. He didn’t build, repair or add anything to Egypt. He reigned for forty years and didn’t leave much of a trace except for a few words on the Stele of Alexander II.
The greatest of the Persians to rule was Darius I. He tried to make his rule acceptable to the people and clergy. He showed interest in the development of Egypt in trading and their institutions. He brought together an empire for the good of the people and created a lasting impression of his reign.

Late Period II425 - 342 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:35:00.000-07:00

Late Period II
(425 - 342 B.C.E.)
The second part of the Late Period is marked as a time of strife from outside and a resurgence of Egyptian culture. Attacks from the Persians and Greeks plagued all three Dynasties, but through luck and strategic planning, the Egyptians were able to stand against the threat, and although mostly isolated, they were even able to counter attack on different occasions.
We see art and literature resurging during these dynasties, with more emphasis placed on temple building and maintenance. Unfortunately for the Egyptians, the end of Late Period II marks the last time Egyptians would rule Egypt until modern times.

Persian Period II342 - 332 B.C.E

2009-06-24T03:33:00.000-07:00

Persian Period II
(342 - 332 B.C.E.)
After a period of independence for Egypt, Artaxerxes III of Persia conquered Egypt on his 2nd attempt. He had previously tried to conquer Egypt in 351 BC, but in 342, he succeeded. When Artaxerxes III took over Egypt, he had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples. Persia gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Aside from the immediate looting, Artaxerxes III raised very high taxes, and basically attempted to weaken Egypt enough that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, religion was persecuted, sacred books were stolen, and Egyptians in general were treated very badly.
In 338 BC, Artaxerxes III was killed by one of his previous advisers, the eunuch Bagoas, and Artaxerxes III’s son Arses became the ruler of Persia. It is unclear whether Arses had control over Egypt, or a Nubian prince named Khabbash was in control of Egypt during Arses’ reign. Whoever was in charge, Bagoas also removed Arses from power in 335, and Darius III became the ruler of Persia and Egypt. Darius III ruled Persia until 330 BC, but in 332 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered Egypt, and started the Greco-Roman Period of Egypt.
References:
http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,108488+22,00.html
http://www.britannica.com/seo/a/artaxerxes-iii/
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0804853.html

Greek Dynasty 332 - 30 B.C.E

2009-06-23T01:03:00.000-07:00

Greek Dynasty
(332 - 30 B.C.E.)
In 332 BC, Egypt was organized as a province of the new Macedonian Empire. Egypt’s transition into this new era came about with Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt and destruction of the Persians. Alexander’s arrival was seen as a deliverer from Persian rule and he was accepted as a Pharaoh. He, however, did not stay long before returning to the battlefield in his campaign against the Persians. In 323 BC, Alexander died suddenly and Ptolemy Lagus became the satrap of Egypt a short time later. In 305 BC, Ptolemy became the king of Egypt. Under his rule Egypt assumed a new appearance with the administration being organized along Greek lines and Greek becoming the official language. This ideal stemmed into the arts and military. These affected age-old Egyptian traditions and conventions in the arts. It created an effective and efficient fighting machine in the military using Macedonian structure.
Religiously they introduced a long line of gods into there existing religious structure without losing the traditions. Under the Ptolemaic Period they also pursued commerce and built new ports and contacts with Asia. The construction of the library of Alexandria was a memorial to their enthusiastic patrons of learning. In the early first century BC internal control slackened and in 30 BC with the death of Cleopatra VII and of Caesarion the Ptolemaic Dynasty ended and Egypt became a Roman province.

Paleolithic Egypt

2009-06-23T01:02:00.000-07:00

Paleolithic Egypt

In the Paleolithic Era, the Sahara and the Nile River valleys were far different then we know it today. The Sahara did not consist of sand but rolling grass lands that sprang forth with abundant vegetation and food. This period of ample vegetation and rainfall lasted until about 30,000 BC. Then the climate began to dry up and the rolling grass lands started to recede and the food supply began to vanish. The people then made their trek to the Nile Valley with its readily available water, game, and arable land. The period marked the change from hunting and gathering to the time of farming. Additionally, this period is believed to have been much more temperate and rainy than the Nile Valley of today.
The earliest evidence for humans in Egypt dates from around 500,000 - 700,000 years ago. These hominid finds are those of Homo erectus. Early Paleolithic sites are most often found near now dried-up springs or lakes or in areas where materials to make stone tools are plentiful.
One of these sites is Arkin 8, discovered by Polish archaeologist Waldemar Chmielewski near Wadi Halfa. These are some of the oldest buildings in the world ever found. The remains of the structures are oval depressions about 30 cm deep and 2 x 1 meters across. Many are lined with flat sandstone slabs. They are called tent rings, because the rocks support a dome-like shelter of skins or brush. This type of dwelling provides a permanent place to live, but if necessary, can be taken down easily and moved. It is a type of structure favored by nomadic tribes making the transition from hunter-gatherer to semi-permanent settlement all over the world.
By the Middle Paleolithic, Homo erectus had been replaced by Homo neanderthalensis. It was about this time that more efficient stone tools were being made by making several stone tools from one core, resulting in numerous thin, sharp flakes that required minimal reshaping to make what was desired. The standardization of stone toolmaking led to the development of several new tools. They developed the lancelet spear point, a better piercing point which easily fit into a wooden shaft.
The next advancement in tool making came during the Aterian Industry which dates around 40,000 BC. The Aterian Industry improved spear and projectile points by adding a notch on the bottom of the stone point, so it could be more securely fastened to the wooden shaft. The other breakthrough in this period is the invention of the spear-thrower, which allowed for more striking power and better accuracy. The spear-thrower consisted of a wooden shaft with a notch on one end where the spear rested. The development of the spear-thrower allowed for increased efficiency in hunting large animals. They hunted a wide variety of animals such as the white rhinoceros, camel, gazelles, warthogs, ostriches, and various types of antelopes.
The Khormusan Industry, which overlapped the Aterian Industry, started some time between 40,000 and 30,000 BC. The Khormusan Industry pushed advancement even farther by making tools from animal bones and ground hematite, but they also used a wide variety of stone tools. The main feature that marks the Khormusan Industry is their small arrow heads that resemble those of Native Americans. The use of bows by the Aterian and Khormusan industries is still questioned; to date there is no set proof that they used bow technology.
During the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic around 30,000 BC, the pluvial conditions ended and desertification overtook the Sahara region. People were forced to migrate closer to the Nile River valley. Near the Nile, new cultures and industries started to develop. These new industries had many new trends in their production of stone tools, especially that of the miniaturization and specialization.
The Sebilian Industry that followed the Khotmusan Industry added little advancement to tool making, and some aspects even went backwards in tool making. The Sebilian Industry is known for their development of burins, small stubby points. They started by making tools from diorite, a hard igneous rock which was widely found in their environment. Later on they switched over to flint which was easier to work.
The Sebilian Industry did coexist with another culture called the Silsillian Industry which did make significant advancements in tool technology. The Silsillians used such blades as truncated blades and microliths. The truncated blades are made for one specific task and are of irregular shape. The microliths are small blades used in such tools as arrows, sickles, and harpoons. The micro blade technology was most likely used because of the small supply of good toolmaking stone, such as diorite and flint.
The Qadan Industry was the first to show major signs of intensive seed collection and other agriculturally similar techniques. They used such tools as sickles and grinding stones. These tools show that by this time people had developed the skills for plant-dependent activities. The use of these tools astonishingly vanished around 10,000 BC for a small period of time, perhaps as a result of climatic change. This resulted in hunting and gathering returning as the adaptive strategy.
Beginning after 13,000 BC, cemeteries and evidence of ritual burial are found. Skeletons were often decorated with necklaces, pendants, breast ornaments and headdresses of shell and bone.
The Epipaleolithic Period dates between 10,000 - 5,500 BC and is the transition between the Paleolithic and the Predynastic periods in ancient Egypt. During this time, the hunter-gatherers began a transition to the village-dwelling farming cultures.
The Nile Valley of the Paleolithic was much larger then it is today, its annual flooding made permanent habitation of its floodplain impossible. As the climate became drier and the extent of the flooding was reduced, people were able to settle on the Nile floodplain. After 7000 BC, permanent settlements were located on the floodplain of the Nile. These began as seasonal camps but become more permanent as people began to develop true agriculture.
References:
Egypt: Complete Guide for Travel, Ancient & Modern Egypt.
Hall, H. R. The Ancient History of the Near East. Methuen & CO., London. 1913.
Hoffman, Michael A. Egypt Before the Pharaohs. Alfred A. Knopf Inc, New York. 1984.
James, T. G. H. An Introduction to Ancient Egypt. Harper & Row, New York. 1979.
Written By Mitch Oachs and Nathan Bailey, 2002

Egyptian Pyramids

2009-06-23T00:53:00.000-07:00

Egyptian Pyramids

Like the Sumerians at the same time, the Egyptians around 3000-2500 BC devoted a lot of

energy to building big buildings. The Pyramids are one of the most impressive monuments of the ancient world, and you can still visit them today. The Pyramids were built as tombs for the Pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt. They were all built during the Old Kingdom, so that the greatest remains of Ancient Egypt are also some of the earliest to have been built! The first Pharaohs built simpler tombs, called mastabas. These mastabas were square buildings with a room inside for the coffin and the mummy and some things to take with you to the afterlife.
Then the Egyptian pharaohs began to build mounds of earth on top of their mastabas, to make them grander. Ordinary princes and other aristocrats went on being buried in mastabas. The Step Pyramid is one of the first of these new fancy tombs. Doesn't it look a lot like a ziggurat?
Soon the Egyptians decided to fill in the steps of the pyramid
The first really pointed pyramids were built at Giza. Khufu's Great Pyramid (shown here) was the tallest building on earth for almost five thousand years, until the Eiffel Tower was built in 1889.
People often wonder how the Egyptians could build such huge buildings so long ago. But really a pyramid is not hard to build, if you have plenty of cheap workers available. First they built a small mastaba-style tomb on the ground, in the ordinary way. Then one theory is that they heaped up tons and tons of dirt over the tomb, leaving a tunnel to the outside. Then they began placing huge stones all over the outside of the pyramid. To raise the stones to the top of the pyramid, they built long ramps of dirt and then rolled the stones up them. They kept making the

ramps higher and longer. When it was done, they took the earth ramps away agai

egypt

2009-06-23T00:07:00.001-07:00

Egypt, at the northeast corner of Africa on the Mediterranean Sea, is bordered on the west by Libya, on the south by the Sudan, and on the east by the Red Sea and Israel. It is nearly one and one-half times the size of Texas. Egypt is divided into two unequal, extremely arid regions by the landscape's dominant feature, the northward-flowing Nile River. The Nile starts 100 mi (161 km) south of the Mediterranean and fans out to a sea front of 155 mi between the cities of Alexandria and Port Said.